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The asteroid 2012 DA14 will miss Earth on Friday, but there's a long history of hits.

There's one physical connection that isn't going down after Valentine's Day this year: Earth and asteroid.

The asteroid known as 2012 DA14 will narrowly miss Earth this Friday, the closest asteroid flyby on record. But the planet has not always been so lucky.

Earth's craters are enduring testaments to direct asteroid hits. And though millions—in some cases billions—of years of erosion have made it difficult to determine the exact size of the meteorites, there is a general scientific consensus around the world's largest craters, which mark the largest asteroid impacts.

Here are the ten biggest known:

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 2 billion years ago

Location: Free State, South Africa

Specs: Also known as the Vredefort Dome, the Vredefort crater has an estimated radius of 118 miles (190 kilometers), making it the world's largest known impact structure. This crater was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005.

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 1.8 billion years ago

Specs: The Sudbury Basin is considered one of largest impact structures on Earth, with an estimated diameter of 81 miles (130 kilometers). Dating back 1.8 billion years, it is also one of the oldest known impact structures in the world.

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 580 million years ago

Location: South Australia, Australia

Specs: Located in what is now Lake Acraman, this impact structure has an estimated diameter of 56 miles (90 kilometers).

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 364 million years ago

Location: Western Australia, Australia

Specs: This crater is not exposed at the surface and has led to many discrepancies regarding its actual size. Reports on its diameter vary from 25 to 75 miles (40 to 120 kilometers).

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 215 million years ago

Specs: This impact crater formed what is now Lake Manicouagan. Even with erosion, it's considered one of the largest and best-preserved craters on Earth, with an estimated diameter of 62 miles (100 kilometers).

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 145 million years ago

Location: North West, South Africa

Specs: Located near the Kalahari Desert in South Africa, this crater contained the fossilized remains of the meteorite that created it.

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 70.3 million years ago

Location: Nenetsia, Russia

Specs: Now greatly eroded, the Kara crater is a non-exposed impact structure in Russia. Some have claimed that the impact structure actually consists of two adjacent craters: the Kara and the Ust-Kara crater.

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 65 million years ago

Specs: Located on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, many scientists believe that the meteorite that left this crater caused or contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs. Estimates of its actual diameter range from 106 to a whooping 186 miles (170 to 300 kilometers), which if proved right could mean it's the biggest.

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 35.7 million years ago

Specs: Russian scientists claim that this crater site contains trillions of carats of diamonds, making it one of the largest diamond deposits in the world. These diamonds have been referred to as "impact diamonds."

10. Chesapeake Bay Crater

Asteroid impact date: Estimated 35 million years ago

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Space shuttle Atlantis, 7 astronauts land after 'amazing' supply mission to station

CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. - Space shuttle Atlantis and its seven astronauts returned to Earth with a smooth touchdown Friday to end an "amazing" flight that resupplied the International Space Station.

With bright sunlight glinting off it, the shuttle swooped through a clear sky and landed on the runway right on time. Mission Control said no one could remember such welcoming conditions: There were no clouds in sight for the midmorning arrival, and the temperature was in the 50s (10-15 Celsius).

"Couldn't have picked a clearer day," commander Charles Hobaugh said during the final approach. Mission Control congratulated him on a "picture perfect" landing.

"We really had truly an amazing mission," Hobaugh said after exiting Atlantis. The description was later repeated by NASA managers happy to cap off a year of five successful shuttle missions.

It was an especially sweet homecoming for two of the crew.

Astronaut Nicole Stott was away for three months, living at the space station. Fellow crew member Randolph Bresnik's baby daughter was born last weekend.

"Everybody, welcome back to Earth, especially you, Nicole," Mission Control radioed.

Hobaugh and his crew spent a week stockpiling the space station. They delivered big spare parts and performed three spacewalks to install equipment and carry out maintenance.

The pumps, gyroscopes and storage tanks should keep the outpost in business for another five to 10 years, long after Atlantis and the two other shuttles are retired.

Stott was feeling the full effects of gravity for the first time since she rocketed to the space station at the end of August on the 91-day mission. Hobaugh said she was doing "great."

Stott was reunited quickly with her husband and 7-year-old son, who were at Kennedy Space Center for the landing. She said throughout the flight that she also was looking forward to some pizza and icy cola.

Bresnik had even bigger plans: to hold his infant daughter for the first time.

Abigail Mae Bresnik was born Saturday night, right after her father took his first spacewalk. But he'll have to wait until Saturday to see her. Bresnik's wife, Rebecca, stayed home in Houston with Abigail and 3-year-old big brother Wyatt.

Atlantis -- which brought back broken equipment from the space station's water-recycling system -- logged 4.5 million miles (7.2 million kilometres) and circled Earth 171 times.

The biggest problem during the 11-day mission was a series of false alarms that woke the astronauts in the middle of the night. The station alarms indicated possible smoke and decompression, and touched off a few frantic minutes for the crews of the linked spacecraft. A clogged filter in a new Russian research chamber was blamed.

Other than that, the flight unfolded so well it was "scary quiet," according to Bill Gerstenmaier, NASA's space operations chief.

"We're kind of superstitious in a way and we don't talk too much about when things are going really good," for fear a problem might jump out of nowhere, Gerstenmaier said. But with Atlantis safely back, he felt comfortable declaring, "This has been a great year for us."

Among 2009's five shuttle missions was the final repair trip to the Hubble Space Telescope. NASA also launched a test flight of its Ares moon rocket, the planned shuttle successor.

This was Atlantis' next-to-last mission. Only five shuttle flights remain, all to the space station next year. Station construction will essentially end at that point, so NASA used the trip to send up as many hefty spare parts as possible. None of the other visiting spacecraft -- from Russia, Japan and Europe -- can carry so much in a single load.

Atlantis, which delivered nearly 15 tons of gear, left the space station 86 per cent complete.

NASA's next shuttle flight is in February. Endeavour will deliver a full-fledged module to the space station, complete with a cupola for prime Earth gazing with a domed chamber that has seven windows.

The five remaining space station residents, meanwhile, may have to dodge a piece of space junk this weekend.

NASA said Friday that flight controllers were monitoring a large piece of an old Delta rocket that could pass within an uncomfortably close six miles of the outpost Saturday afternoon. The rocket was used to launch NASA's Stardust spacecraft in 1999 to gather comet dust samples.

A decision on whether to move the space station to avoid a possible hit was expected Friday evening.

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P.S. A shout-out to my amazing wife for going from learning I’m bi to fucking another dude with me three months later!

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Some sex workers love their jobs, some don’t; some sex workers are good at their jobs, some aren’t. Sometimes a sex worker doesn’t click with a particular client for some ephemeral, hard-to-define reason; sometimes a client gives off a bad vibe — or a bad odor — and the sex worker bails or hurries things along not because they’re a shitty sex worker, BICOUPLE, but because their client is shitty or smells shitty. But here’s the thing, BICOUPLE: No sex worker can read minds. You tell me you’re wondering if you should’ve been “more upfront with [your] interests ahead of time.”

If you left something important out when you made the booking, well, that could’ve been the problem. No sex worker likes having things sprung on them. A sex worker who doesn’t do kink is going to feel very uncomfortable if there’s a bunch of bondage gear laid out when they arrive; even a sex worker who does kink is going to feel uncomfortable if kink wasn’t discussed in advance.

Similarly, BICOUPLE, if you didn’t explain to your sex worker that there were two of you, your sex worker might’ve felt uncomfortable when they arrived. If you weren’t clear about your wants and your sex worker didn’t ask or you couldn’t articulate them after he asked, you put your sex worker in the position of having to guess. And your sex worker may have guessed wrong — some clients prefer sex that’s athletic, impersonal, or aggressive. And if your sex worker had a bad experience with a husband who got upset when his wife seemed a little too into him, he may have erred on the side of maintaining some emotional distance even as you got physically close.

If what you wanted — if what you were most interested in — was a more intimate and connected experience, then you weren’t just expecting sexual labor from the sex worker you hired, BICOUPLE, but his emotional labor too. While affection and intimacy can certainly be faked, we don’t typically expect a strong emotional connection when we’re hooking up with a stranger.

Being sexually intimate can build that connection, BICOUPLE, but it can take time and a few meetings to get there. To avoid winding up in bed with another sex worker you don’t click with, I would advise you to take the time — and spend the money — to make a real connection. By which I mean: Go on a date. Find a sex worker you’re interested in and make a date — for dinner. Pay them for their time, pay for their meal, and if you click, BICOUPLE, if you feel like you could connect, book them for a sex date.

Straight male here, divorced four years ago, just entering my fifties. I recently expanded my dating app parameters to see everyone in my area. I wanted to check out the competition and possibly give myself a little ego boost. I have a gay male friend who is in his forties. Mr. Forties has a boyfriend of two years who is in his twenties. They are great together — they vacation together, they quarantined together, Mr. Twenties and Mr. Forties worked on redecorating a home together, etc. The problem is I spotted Mr. Forties on several dating apps. It would have been perfectly acceptable for him to say, “None of your business,” when I asked him why. Instead he told me they were old profiles, implying they predated Mr. Twenties. He lists pets on his profiles that he adopted a few months ago. I have a sore spot about this behavior because my ex-wife started “auditioning” my replacement before we filed divorce papers. I really don’t like being lied to. What do I do? Confront Mr. Forties? Mind my own business and hope Mr. Forties doesn’t crush Mr. Twenties by cheating? Help!
-FUMBLED INTO FRAUGHT TERRAIN INVOLVING EXPANDED SEARCH

Maybe Mr. Forties and Mr. Twenties have an open relationship. Maybe they have a closed relationship but both regard flirting on dating apps as harmless. Maybe Mr. Forties was charged with finding a very special guest star for a threesome. Or maybe Mr. Forties has profiles on dating apps for the exact same reason you expanded the parameters on your profiles, FIFTIES: the ego boost.

If it was any of the above — if there was an innocent explanation — why did Mr. Forties go with, “Those were old profiles,” instead of, “We sometimes have threesomes”?

Well, in my experience, FIFTIES, some straight people have a hard time wrapping their heads around the kind of non-monogamy practiced by most gay male couples. Hell, some closed-minded gay people have a hard time with it. I can imagine a scenario where Mr. Forties was honest with people in the past and got a bad reaction and consequently no longer feels safe — much less obligated — to share the details of his sex life with straight or gay friends. So he gave you the answer a lot of straight people and some gay people prefer to hear when they ask pointed questions of partnered friends they assumed to be monogamous: “Of course I’m not sleeping around! Those were old profiles! My monogamous boyfriend would never want me to shove my monogamous dick down his throat while some other dude non-monogamously rearranges his guts! Heavens! We’re far too busy redecorating our lovely home to arrange threesomes! Which we’re totally not interested in having!”

Look, FIFTIES, you put a question to Mr. Forties that he wasn’t obligated to answer at all, much less answer truthfully. So what do you do now? What you should’ve done when you first stumbled over Mr. Forties’ dating pro-files: You do nothing. You drop it. The issue you shouldn’t have brought it up in the first place? You don’t bring it up again. Even if Mr. Forties is auditioning replacements for Mr. Twenties — even if he lied to you for a selfish, self-serving reason — it’s still none of your business.

Dan Savage

My boyfriend and I first heard the terms “sexual monogamy” and “social monogamy” on your podcast. They describe us: not sexually monogamous, but we present that way socially and most people in our lives assume we are. Including my mother. We’re both from very Republican families that struggled to accept us. My attitude is that if my brothers don’t have to tell our parents about their kinks, I don’t have to tell them about my threesomes. (Both of my older brothers have confided in me about their kinks, which I wish that hadn’t.) But it got back to me via my sister that my Trump-worshipping, Obama-despising mother only accepts me and my boyfriend because we are “good” gays. Good because we’re monogamous, like good straight people, and not promiscuous, like bad gay people. Now I feel like I should say something. But what?
-THEY REALLY UNDERESTIMATE MY PROCLIVITIES

“Good people can be ‘promiscuous,’ Mom, and awful people can be monogamous. Take Donald Trump. That asshole has been married three times and cheated on every one of his wives. Barack Obama, whom you despise, has been married once and has never been caught cheating. Which means Obama either doesn’t cheat or, like everything else he’s ever done, from being someone’s husband to being our president, he’s better at it than Donald Trump.”

Queen of Atlantis Hits & Misses in Canada

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“Atlantis” Surfaces and “Drop Dead Diva” and “Catfish” Will Return for New Seasons

Catfish has been renewed for a third season, though that was announced on the show’s Facebook page so we should double check that the announcement didn’t come from a fake fan page for a show about fake online profiles.

BBC One has ordered a second season of Atlantis, which debuts on BBC America on November 23. From what I’ve heard, Atlantis has that sweet mix of beefcake and bromance that should be appreciated by TBL readers, so I’m looking forward to seeing it.

In what must be an attempt to tell TV critics they don’t know decent comedy or how to read terrible ratings numbers, Fox has ordered a full season of Dads.

In better TV news, EW reports that Lifetime has ordered a sixth season of the charming Drop Dead Diva.

The Atlantic argues that TV’s portrayal of bisexual people has been improving, thanks to characters like Revenge’s Nolan, The Good Wife’s Kalinda and Grey’s Anatomy’s Callie, whose love lives are compelling and whose bisexuality isn’t minimalized.

I’m keeping my fingers crossed for these two.

Craig Robinson will appear in an episode of Brooklyn Nine-Nine. I think that makes him the first major star from The Office to show up on the show (which has a producer in common with The Office).

Here’s something that will make some of you feel the march of time: MTV’s The Jon Stewart Show debuted 20 years ago this week.

Kristoffer Polaha will be appearing on CSI according to The Hollywood Reporter as a “blue-collar mechanic” which seems a bit of a waste considering how good Polaha looks in a suit.

FX and Turner are fighting Netflix over how you watch TV. Basically, the cable channels want to be able to put a full season of its original programs available for online streaming but Netflix is fighting it, warning TV producers that they’ll pay far less for eventual Netflix streaming rights if that happens. It’s a complicated situation, but if you’re interested in the details the Vulture article does a great job explaining it.

Ad Age explains how advertisers feel about DVR viewers. While broadcasters like to boast of the number of people who watch their shows once DVR, online and On Demand viewers are counted, only a few of those viewers count towards ad rates.

Finally, EW reverses the usual question and asks which shows don’t get a nice DVR bump. Not counting sports and reality shows (which usually do poorly with DVR viewers), The Millers isn’t getting people to set their DVR, nor is the charming Back in the Game.

I was convinced to record Dracula by Jonathan Rhys Meyers’ delts.

NBC had good news in Friday’s ratings. The return of Grimm improved on last year’s premiere, and Dracula held onto Grimm’s audience. On the other hand, The Carrie Diaries’ ratings just make me sad. I’m just hoping it’s big on Netflix.

Listings

The Queen Latifah Show (syndicated) Check local listings
Chris Colfer is on today’s show, probably to explain how he managed to come up with a “sexy R2D2” costume that doesn’t look ridiculous. Or maybe he’ll discuss his books.

The View (ABC) Check local listings
Today’s show includes Neil Patrick Harris.

How I Met Your Mother (CBS) 8:00 PM ET
There are so many things going wrong this season and Sherri Shepherd is one of them. In the past, when a casting announcement made me grumpy, HIMYM showed that it knew how to effectively work an unbearable celebrity into the show. Tonight, Daphne continues to insert herself into Marshall and Lily’s relationship with what will likely be more angry black lady punchlines.

There they go again, finding gags that haven’t been done to death. Or rendered obsolete by technology.

RuPaul’s Drag Race: The Lost Season RuVealed (Logo) 9:00 PM ET
Okay, I want to hate this episode just because of the results, but truthfully, this was the origin of a challenge so iconic, RPDR has brought it back again and again. It’s the first drag makeover challenge as the competitors have to help female boxers find their inner diva.

Mom (CBS) 9:30 PM ET
Justin Long returns as the sitcom heroine’s starter boyfriend. Wisely, Christy thinks she should take the relationship slowly but Bonnie and her AA pals think they should discuss Christy’s next course of action first.

Whew. French Stewart is back this week. He gets the best lines.

What!? Superheroes (Logo) 10:00 PM ET
Logo applies the interrobang to “real life superheroes”, vigilantes who sometimes dress in costume to battle local crime. If this is the documentary I think it is, the crusaders include Zimmer a gay man who tries to lure potential gay bashers while his colleague T.S.A.F. (The Silenced and the Forgotten) waits to provide backup.

The Blacklist (NBC) 10:00 PM ET
This week’s criminal is a “deadly corporate terrorist” played by Revenge alum Margarita Levieva. Aw, it’s good to know that Fauxmanda took some lessons with her into the next life.

Totally Biased with W. Kamau Bell (FXX) 11:00 PM ET
Kamau is chatting with the amazing Judy Gold tonight.

What will you be watching tonight? Please share in the comments!

Tomorrow’s Preview

The Talk (CBS) Check local listings
Sean Hayes is on tomorrow’s show.

Massive crater under Greenland’s ice points to climate-altering impact in the time of humans

On a bright July day 2 years ago, Kurt Kjær was in a helicopter flying over northwest Greenland—an expanse of ice, sheer white and sparkling. Soon, his target came into view: Hiawatha Glacier, a slow-moving sheet of ice more than a kilometer thick. It advances on the Arctic Ocean not in a straight wall, but in a conspicuous semicircle, as though spilling out of a basin. Kjær, a geologist at the Natural History Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen, suspected the glacier was hiding an explosive secret. The helicopter landed near the surging river that drains the glacier, sweeping out rocks from beneath it. Kjær had 18 hours to find the mineral crystals that would confirm his suspicions.

What he brought home clinched the case for a grand discovery. Hidden beneath Hiawatha is a 31-kilometer-wide impact crater, big enough to swallow Washington, D.C., Kjær and 21 co-authors report today in a paper in Science Advances. The crater was left when an iron asteroid 1.5 kilometers across slammed into Earth, possibly within the past 100,000 years.

Though not as cataclysmic as the dinosaur-killing Chicxulub impact, which carved out a 200-kilometer-wide crater in Mexico about 66 million years ago, the Hiawatha impactor, too, may have left an imprint on the planet's history. The timing is still up for debate, but some researchers on the discovery team believe the asteroid struck at a crucial moment: roughly 13,000 years ago, just as the world was thawing from the last ice age. That would mean it crashed into Earth when mammoths and other megafauna were in decline and people were spreading across North America.

The impact would have been a spectacle for anyone within 500 kilometers. A white fireball four times larger and three times brighter than the sun would have streaked across the sky. If the object struck an ice sheet, it would have tunneled through to the bedrock, vaporizing water and stone alike in a flash. The resulting explosion packed the energy of 700 1-megaton nuclear bombs, and even an observer hundreds of kilometers away would have experienced a buffeting shock wave, a monstrous thunder-clap, and hurricane-force winds. Later, rock debris might have rained down on North America and Europe, and the released steam, a greenhouse gas, could have locally warmed Greenland, melting even more ice.

The news of the impact discovery has reawakened an old debate among scientists who study ancient climate. A massive impact on the ice sheet would have sent meltwater pouring into the Atlantic Ocean—potentially disrupting the conveyor belt of ocean currents and causing temperatures to plunge, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. "What would it mean for species or life at the time? It's a huge open question," says Jennifer Marlon, a paleoclimatologist at Yale University.

A decade ago, a small group of scientists proposed a similar scenario. They were trying to explain a cooling event, more than 1000 years long, called the Younger Dryas, which began 12,800 years ago, as the last ice age was ending. Their controversial solution was to invoke an extraterrestrial agent: the impact of one or more comets. The researchers proposed that besides changing the plumbing of the North Atlantic, the impact also ignited wildfires across two continents that led to the extinction of large mammals and the disappearance of the mammoth-hunting Clovis people of North America. The research group marshaled suggestive but inconclusive evidence, and few other scientists were convinced. But the idea caught the public's imagination despite an obvious limitation: No one could find an impact crater.

Proponents of a Younger Dryas impact now feel vindicated. "I'd unequivocally predict that this crater is the same age as the Younger Dryas," says James Kennett, a marine geologist at the University of California, Santa Barbara, one of the idea's original boosters.

But Jay Melosh, an impact crater expert at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, doubts the strike was so recent. Statistically, impacts the size of Hiawatha occur only every few million years, he says, and so the chance of one just 13,000 years ago is small. No matter who is right, the discovery will give ammunition to Younger Dryas impact theorists—and will turn the Hiawatha impactor into another type of projectile. "This is a hot potato," Melosh tells Science. "You're aware you're going to set off a firestorm?"

It started with a hole. In 2015, Kjær and a colleague were studying a new map of the hidden contours under Greenland's ice. Based on variations in the ice's depth and surface flow patterns, the map offered a coarse suggestion of the bedrock topography—including the hint of a hole under Hiawatha.

Kjær recalled a massive iron meteorite in his museum's courtyard, near where he parks his bicycle. Called Agpalilik, Inuit for "the Man," the 20-ton rock is a fragment of an even larger meteorite, the Cape York, found in pieces on northwest Greenland by Western explorers but long used by Inuit people as a source of iron for harpoon tips and tools. Kjær wondered whether the meteorite might be a remnant of an impactor that dug the circular feature under Hiawatha. But he still wasn't confident that it was an impact crater. He needed to see it more clearly with radar, which can penetrate ice and reflect off bedrock.

Kjær's team began to work with Joseph MacGregor, a glaciologist at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, who dug up archival radar data. MacGregor found that NASA aircraft often flew over the site on their way to survey Arctic sea ice, and the instruments were sometimes turned on, in test mode, on the way out. "That was pretty glorious," MacGregor says.

The radar pictures more clearly showed what looked like the rim of a crater, but they were still too fuzzy in the middle. Many features on Earth's surface, such as volcanic calderas, can masquerade as circles. But only impact craters contain central peaks and peak rings, which form at the center of a newborn crater when—like the splash of a stone in a pond—molten rock rebounds just after a strike. To look for those features, the researchers needed a dedicated radar mission.

Coincidentally, the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Bremerhaven, Germany, had just purchased a next-generation ice-penetrating radar to mount across the wings and body of their Basler aircraft, a twin-propeller retrofitted DC-3 that's a workhorse of Arctic science. But they also needed financing and a base close to Hiawatha.

Kjær took care of the money. Traditional funding agencies would be too slow, or prone to leaking their idea, he thought. So he petitioned Copenhagen's Carlsberg Foundation, which uses profits from its global beer sales to finance science. MacGregor, for his part, enlisted NASA colleagues to persuade the U.S. military to let them work out of Thule Air Base, a Cold War outpost on northern Greenland, where German members of the team had been trying to get permission to work for 20 years. "I had retired, very serious German scientists sending me happy-face emojis," MacGregor says.

NASA and German aircraft used radar to see the contours of an impact crater beneath the ice of Hiawatha Glacier.

Three flights, in May 2016, added 1600 kilometers of fresh data from dozens of transits across the ice—and evidence that Kjær, MacGregor, and their team were onto something. The radar revealed five prominent bumps in the crater's center, indicating a central peak rising some 50 meters high. And in a sign of a recent impact, the crater bottom is exceptionally jagged. If the asteroid had struck earlier than 100,000 years ago, when the area was ice free, erosion from melting ice farther inland would have scoured the crater smooth, MacGregor says. The radar signals also showed that the deep layers of ice were jumbled up—another sign of a recent impact. The oddly disturbed patterns, MacGregor says, suggest "the ice sheet hasn't equilibrated with the presence of this impact crater."

But the team wanted direct evidence to overcome the skepticism they knew would greet a claim for a massive young crater, one that seemed to defy the odds of how often large impacts happen. And that's why Kjær found himself, on that bright July day in 2016, frenetically sampling rocks all along the crescent of terrain encircling Hiawatha's face. His most crucial stop was in the middle of the semicircle, near the river, where he collected sediments that appeared to have come from the glacier's interior. It was hectic, he says—"one of those days when you just check your samples, fall on the bed, and don't rise for some time."

In that outwash, Kjær's team closed its case. Sifting through the sand, Adam Garde, a geologist at the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland in Copenhagen, found glass grains forged at temperatures higher than a volcanic eruption can generate. More important, he discovered shocked crystals of quartz. The crystals contained a distinctive banded pattern that can be formed only in the intense pressures of extraterrestrial impacts or nuclear weapons. The quartz makes the case, Melosh says. "It looks pretty good. All the evidence is pretty compelling."

Now, the team needs to figure out exactly when the collision occurred and how it affected the planet.

Under a lobe of ice on northwest Greenland, airborne radar and ground sampling have uncovered a giant and remarkably fresh impact crater. Though not as large as the dinosaur-killing Chicxulub impact, Hiawatha crater may have formed as recently as the end of the last ice age, as humans were spreading across North America. Meltwater from the impact could have triggered a thousand-year chill in the Northern Hemisphere by disrupting currents in the Atlantic Ocean.

None of the drilled Greenland ice cores (red dots) contains meteoritic debris. But one, GISP2, shows a spike in platinum about 12,900 years ago.

Where is the impact debris?

Radar reflections from volcanic grit trapped in the ice can be tied to dated ice cores drilled elsewhere. Those reflections stop at 11,700 years ago. Below that, the ice is disturbed. The crater’s bed is rough, not yet smoothed down. This points to an actively eroding young crater less than 100,000 years old.

Samples near the gla cier’s outlet contained beads of once-molten glass and shocked quartz—crystals scarred by high temperatures and pressures.

After an impact, rebounding molten rock piles up in a central peak and sometimes collapses into a peak ring—one way to distinguish an impact crater from a volcano.

A Basler BT-67 aircraft, fitted with radars on its belly and wings, criss crossed the crater, looking for reflections.

The impact would have tunneled through ice and bedrock, leaving a crater 31 kilometers wide and more than 300 meters deep.

The Younger Dryas, named after a small white and yellow arctic flower that flourished during the cold snap, has long fascinated scientists. Until human-driven global warming set in, that period reigned as one of the sharpest recent swings in temperature on Earth. As the last ice age waned, about 12,800 years ago, temperatures in parts of the Northern Hemisphere plunged by as much as 8°C, all the way back to ice age readings. They stayed that way for more than 1000 years, turning advancing forest back into tundra.

The trigger could have been a disruption in the conveyor belt of ocean currents, including the Gulf Stream that carries heat northward from the tropics. In a 1989 paper in Nature, Kennett, along with Wallace Broecker, a climate scientist at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, and others, laid out how meltwater from retreating ice sheets could have shut down the conveyor. As warm water from the tropics travels north at the surface, it cools while evaporation makes it saltier. Both factors boost the water's density until it sinks into the abyss, helping to drive the conveyor. Adding a pulse of less-dense freshwater could hit the brakes. Paleoclimate researchers have largely endorsed the idea, although evidence for such a flood has been lacking until recently.

Then, in 2007, Kennett suggested a new trigger. He teamed up with scientists led by Richard Firestone, a physicist at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California, who proposed a comet strike at the key moment. Exploding over the ice sheet covering North America, the comet or comets would have tossed light-blocking dust into the sky, cooling the region. Farther south, fiery projectiles would have set forests alight, producing soot that deepened the gloom and the cooling. The impact also could have destabilized ice and unleashed meltwater that would have disrupted the Atlantic circulation.

The climate chaos, the team suggested, could explain why the Clovis settlements emptied and the megafauna vanished soon afterward. But the evidence was scanty. Firestone and his colleagues flagged thin sediment layers at dozens of archaeological sites in North America. Those sediments seemed to contain geochemical traces of an extraterrestrial impact, such as a peak in iridium, the exotic element that helped cement the case for a Chicxulub impact. The layers also yielded tiny beads of glass and iron—possible meteoritic debris—and heavy loads of soot and charcoal, indicating fires.

The team met immediate criticism. The decline of mammoths, giant sloths, and other species had started well before the Younger Dryas. In addition, no sign existed of a human die-off in North America, archaeologists said. The nomadic Clovis people wouldn't have stayed long in any site. The distinctive spear points that marked their presence probably vanished not because the people died out, but rather because those weapons were no longer useful once the mammoths waned, says Vance Holliday, an archaeologist at The University of Arizona in Tucson. The impact hypothesis was trying to solve problems that didn't need solving.

The geochemical evidence also began to erode. Outside scientists could not detect the iridium spike in the group's samples. The beads were real, but they were abundant across many geological times, and soot and charcoal did not seem to spike at the time of the Younger Dryas. "They listed all these things that aren't quite sufficient," says Stein Jacobsen, a geochemist at Harvard University who studies craters.

Yet the impact hypothesis never quite died. Its proponents continued to study the putative debris layer at other sites in Europe and the Middle East. They also reported finding microscopic diamonds at different sites that, they say, could have been formed only by an impact. (Outside researchers question the claims of diamonds.)

Now, with the discovery of Hiawatha crater, "I think we have the smoking gun," says Wendy Wolbach, a geochemist at De-Paul University in Chicago, Illinois, who has done work on fires during the era.

The impact would have melted 1500 gigatons of ice, the team estimates—about as much ice as Antarctica has lost because of global warming in the past decade. The local greenhouse effect from the released steam and the residual heat in the crater rock would have added more melt. Much of that freshwater could have ended up in the nearby Labrador Sea, a primary site pumping the Atlantic Ocean's overturning circulation. "That potentially could perturb the circulation," says Sophia Hines, a marine paleoclimatologist at Lamont-Doherty.

Leery of the earlier controversy, Kjær won't endorse that scenario. "I'm not putting myself in front of that bandwagon," he says. But in drafts of the paper, he admits, the team explicitly called out a possible connection between the Hiawatha impact and the Younger Dryas.

Banded patterns in the mineral quartz are diagnostic of shock waves from an extraterrestrial impact.

The evidence starts with the ice. In the radar images, grit from distant volcanic eruptions makes some of the boundaries between seasonal layers stand out as bright reflections. Those bright layers can be matched to the same layers of grit in cataloged, dated ice cores from other parts of Greenland. Using that technique, Kjær's team found that most ice in Hiawatha is perfectly layered through the past 11,700 years. But in the older, disturbed ice below, the bright reflections disappear. Tracing the deep layers, the team matched the jumble with debris-rich surface ice on Hiawatha's edge that was previously dated to 12,800 years ago. "It was pretty self-consistent that the ice flow was heavily disturbed at or prior to the Younger Dryas," MacGregor says.

Other lines of evidence also suggest Hiawatha could be the Younger Dryas impact. In 2013, Jacobsen examined an ice core from the center of Greenland, 1000 kilometers away. He was expecting to put the Younger Dryas impact theory to rest by showing that, 12,800 years ago, levels of metals that asteroid impacts tend to spread did not spike. Instead, he found a peak in platinum, similar to ones measured in samples from the crater site. "That suggests a connection to the Younger Dryas right there," Jacobsen says.

For Broecker, the coincidences add up. He had first been intrigued by the Firestone paper, but quickly joined the ranks of naysayers. Advocates of the Younger Dryas impact pinned too much on it, he says: the fires, the extinction of the megafauna, the abandonment of the Clovis sites. "They put a bad shine on it." But the platinum peak Jacobsen found, followed by the discovery of Hiawatha, has made him believe again. "It's got to be the same thing," he says.

Yet no one can be sure of the timing. The disturbed layers could reflect nothing more than normal stresses deep in the ice sheet. "We know all too well that older ice can be lost by shearing or melting at the base," says Jeff Severinghaus, a paleoclimatologist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, California. Richard Alley, a glaciologist at Pennsylvania State University in University Park, believes the impact is much older than 100,000 years and that a subglacial lake can explain the odd textures near the base of the ice. "The ice flow over growing and shrinking lakes interacting with rough topography might have produced fairly complex structures," Alley says.

A recent impact should also have left its mark in the half-dozen deep ice cores drilled at other sites on Greenland, which document the 100,000 years of the current ice sheet's history. Yet none exhibits the thin layer of rubble that a Hiawatha-size strike should have kicked up. "You really ought to see something," Severinghaus says.

Brandon Johnson, a planetary scientist at Brown University, isn't so sure. After seeing a draft of the study, Johnson, who models impacts on icy moons such as Europa and Enceladus, used his code to recreate an asteroid impact on a thick ice sheet. An impact digs a crater with a central peak like the one seen at Hiawatha, he found, but the ice suppresses the spread of rocky debris. "Initial results are that it goes a lot less far," Johnson says.

In 2016, Kurt Kjær looked for evidence of an impact in sand washed out from underneath Hiawatha Glacier. He would find glassy beads and shocked crystals of quartz.

Even if the asteroid struck at the right moment, it might not have unleashed all the disasters envisioned by proponents of the Younger Dryas impact. "It's too small and too far away to kill off the Pleistocene mammals in the continental United States," Melosh says. And how a strike could spark flames in such a cold, barren region is hard to see. "I can't imagine how something like this impact in this location could have caused massive fires in North America," Marlon says.

It might not even have triggered the Younger Dryas. Ocean sediment cores show no trace of a surge of freshwater into the Labrador Sea from Greenland, says Lloyd Keigwin, a paleoclimatologist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts. The best recent evidence, he adds, suggests a flood into the Arctic Ocean through western Canada instead.

An external trigger may be unnecessary in any case, Alley says. During the last ice age, the North Atlantic saw 25 other cooling spells, probably triggered by disruptions to the Atlantic's overturning circulation. None of those spells, known as Dansgaard-Oeschger (D-O) events, was as severe as the Younger Dryas, but their frequency suggests an internal cycle played a role in the Younger Dryas, too. Even Broecker agrees that the impact was not the ultimate cause of the cooling. If D-O events represent abrupt transitions between two regular states of the ocean, he says, "you could say the ocean was approaching instability and somehow this event knocked it over."

Still, Hiawatha's full story will come down to its age. Even an exposed impact crater can be a challenge for dating, which requires capturing the moment when the impact altered existing rocks—not the original age of the impactor or its target. Kjær's team has been trying. They fired lasers at the glassy spherules to release argon for dating, but the samples were too contaminated. The researchers are inspecting a blue crystal of the mineral apatite for lines left by the decay of uranium, but it's a long shot. The team also found traces of carbon in other samples, which might someday yield a date, Kjær says. But the ultimate answer may require drilling through the ice to the crater floor, to rock that melted in the impact, resetting its radioactive clock. With large enough samples, researchers should be able to pin down Hiawatha's age.

Given the remote location, a drilling expedition to the hole at the top of the world would be costly. But an understanding of recent climate history—and what a giant impact can do to the planet—is at stake. "Somebody's got to go drill in there," Keigwin says. "That's all there is to it."

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